Chapter 68 – Lindsay Malone (D5SOP7)
Domain 5 Standard of Proficiency 7
Demonstrate an understanding of the theories of individual and social development across the lifespan and contexts and within different cultures including the knowledge required to work with individuals, children, vulnerable adults, families and marginalised groups
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KEY TERMS Nature versus nurture Lifespan Adverse childhood experiences |
Social Care is … a relationship–based approach to the provision of care in the lives of those who are marginalised or in need of additional support or protection. |
TASK 1
Nature versus Nurture – Consider how we develop – is it because of our genetics and biology or is it because of our environment?
Introduction
This chapter will explore the theories of individual and social development across the lifespan and contexts and within different cultures. The information provided and the tasks have been developed in order to enable you to develop the knowledge required to work with individuals, children, vulnerable adults, families and marginalised groups. This proficiency is essential for social care practice as there is currently significant a focus on understanding trauma and how it links to theories of individual and social development.
Nature and Nurture
The narrative surrounding how individuals develop over their lifetime has its roots firmly based in the nature versus nurture debate. The naturalists understand development to be influenced by genetic inheritance whereas those on the nurture side of the debate consider development to be the product of exposure to life experiences (Levitt 2013).
Key Message
Physical and Cognitive Development occur in universal sequential stages
Gesell’s Maturation Theory
From a naturalist perspective, In the early 20th century clinical psychologistand paediatrician Arnold Gesell developed Gesell’s Maturation Theory. This theory focused on the physical and cognitive development of children. Gesell believed that children will go through the same stages of development, in the same sequence but each child will go through the stages at their own rate as patterns of development are determined by the individual’s heredity. The core emphasis of Gesell’s theory was that growth always progresses in a pattern through predictable stages whereby sequential development begins within the embryo and continues after birth (Couchenour & Chrisman 2016).
According to Gesell growth and development should be thought of as a cyclical spiral which alternates between patterns of equilibrium and disequilibrium, each cycle of the spiral encompassing the time it takes to move through six stages that alternate between equilibrium and disequilibrium. These cycles of development are divided into six definitive stages which are repeated throughout life. See figure below of the cycles of development (Couchenour & Chrisman 2016).
To further illustrate an example of how Gesell’s theory of maturational development always unfolds in fixed sequences consider an embryo. The embryo’s heart is always the first organ to develop, which is then followed by central nervous system and then followed by the peripheral organs. Continuing with the sequential stages, following birth, a baby will first gain control over their mouth, followed by eye movement, followed by control over their neck, shoulders, arms, legs, and feet. Once the baby further develops, they learn to sit up, stand, walk, and run; these capacities develop in a specific order with the growth of the nervous system, even though the rate of development may vary from child to child. Gesell believed that individual differences in growth rates are a result of the internal genetic mechanisms (Lerner 2015).
Maturational theory states that while the child’s social and cultural environments also play a role in their development, these socializing forces are most effective when they are harmonious with the inner maturational timetable. Maturation is the genetically programmed sequence of change that individuals all go through in life. Gesell fundamentally believed development is predetermined, with little influence from the environment. If a child experiences delayed development, then the problem is heredity not environmental.
Key Message
Cognitive Development happens in sequential stages
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Offering another way of looking at development through sequential stages, Jean Piaget developed his theory of cognitive development which suggests that individuals progress through four developmental stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period. Focusing on cognitive or mental development, the theory offers an explanation of the nature of knowledge itself and how individuals gradually acquire, construct, and use it (Piaget 1972).
Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage is the Sensorimotor stage, which covers birth to two years. In this stage, children seek to understand objects in the world around them by using sensory activity. The key milestones here are object permanence and deferred imitation. The former being the child’s ability to know that objects remain in the environment even when they cannot see them and the latter meaning the child’s ability to imitate others (Piaget 1972).
Critical Lens
According to the findings from Bauer et al. (2019) cognitive abilities amongst infants can develop much sooner than Piaget inferred.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage is the preoperational stage which covers two to seven years of age. This stages focuses on symbolic ability which is the child’s ability to use symbols and words to understand the world around them. Two core components of this stage are animism and egocentrism. Animism occurs when children believe everything in the world around them is alive, including inanimate objects. An example of this evident when a child will not leave a teddy bear outside at night time as the child believes the teddy will be cold and lonely outside on its own. Egocentrism refers to the child’s inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view as they believe that others see, feel and experience things in the same way they do (Piaget 1972).
Critical Lens
A study by Gelman (1972 cited in Berk 2006) revealed that children aged 3 could perform the conservation task successfully which proves Piaget’s theory incorrect and demonstrates that Piaget underestimated the ability of pre-school children.
TASK 2
You can view the Three Mountains Task which examined Egocentrism here:
Three Mountain Task
Operational Stage
The third stage is the concrete operational stage which spans from the age of seven to eleven. The key milestones of this stage are conservation and classification. The former is the child’s conservation abilities, in other words, they develop the ability to understand that a litre of water remains the same in different sized glasses. During this stage they also develop the ability to classify objects into different sizes, shapes and value. They also develop the ability to understand sets and subsets, for example that a mother can be a sister and daughter all at the same time (Piaget 1972).
Critical Lens
Research by Comer et al. (2011) revealed that children in this stage cannot understand the relationship between things that do not exist in the physical world.
Formal Operational Stage
This final stage occurs from the age of eleven into adolescence and is defined by significant development in the child’s thinking and reasoning skills whereby they develop the ability to use logic and abstract reasoning (Piaget 1972).
Critical Lens
Research by Bernstein et al. (2008) revealed that not all adolescents acquire this ability as in some societies only half do due to educational disadvantages
TASK 3
Consider whether Piaget’s theory is a true reflection of all children and young people or is it culturally specific?
“I use Piaget’s Theory all the time in practice as it helps me to understand the normative stages of development. By having an understanding of normative milestones, it becomes easier to see when a child may be experiencing developmental difficulties. For me, the theory provides a roadmap of development milestones which I can use to support and scaffold a child’s learning and development” (School Completion Officer 2020)
Key Message
There are 4 types of Attachment and each have an impact on a person’s behaviour
Attachment Theory
Attachment is a bond from one person to another which lasts a lifetime. The evolutionary Theory of Attachment originates from Bowlby (1958). According to Bowlby, infants have a universal need to seek closeness when they feel threatened and attachment occurs when the caregiver provides safety and security for an infant. Essentially, from a nature perspective, infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments and from a nurture perspective, how the caregiver responds is vital in how it forms. Bowlby defined the following four stages of attachment.
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Pre-attachment (Birth – 2 months) Baby shows no particular attachment to any caregiver |
Indiscriminate (2 – 6 months) Infant begins to show preference for primary caregivers |
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Discriminate (7 months +) Infant shows attachment to one primary caregiver |
Multiple (10months +) Infant develops bonds with other caregivers |
TASK 4
Watch Ainsworth Strange Situation Video Here: Ainsworth Strange Situation Video
Building on Bowlby’s work, Mary Ainsworth devised an assessment technique called the Strange Situation Classification in order to investigate how attachments might vary between children. Observing infants aged between 12 and 18 months covertly, the experiment sample comprised of 100 middle-class American families where the behaviour of the infant in a series of eight episodes lasting approximately 3 minutes each was measured. From the findings, Ainsworth (1970 cited in Brown and Ward 2013) identified three main attachment styles, insecure avoidant (type A), secure (type B), and insecure ambivalent/resistant (type C) and a fourth attachment style known as disorganised was later identified. She concluded that these attachment styles were the result of early interactions with the caregivers and the results can last a lifetime.
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Secure attachment occurs when the child is cared for by sensitive and responsive caregivers. Securely attached children are able to regulate their distress and know they can show their needs and feelings and won’t be rejected. |
Insecure avoidant tends to occur when the caregiver finds it difficult to accept or respond sensitively to the infant’s needs. These children tend to experience parenting that is hostile, rejecting and controlling. They come to see themselves as neither loved nor loveable. Children respond to this by shutting down on their feelings because of their anxiety that any display of need or emotion may drive their caregiver away. |
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Insecure ambivalent attachment tends to occur when the caregiver responds inconsistently to the child’s demands. These children exaggerate their attachment behaviour to attract attention. They are not always successful at being noticed and their ambivalence reflects their need for and anger with their attachment figure. |
Disorganised attachment occurs in children who are cared for by people who are frightening. Children may fear approaching their caregiver because they cannot predict whether they will respond positively or negatively. Consequently these children are not able to ‘organise’ their own behaviour and have difficulty regulating their emotions. |
(Brown and Ward, 2013)
“Understanding attachment theory is vital in my role as a Residential Social Care Practitioner as our referrals are awash with the word attachment. Therefore, to not understand the different types of attachment, would be detrimental to how we engage, support and care for young people in our unit. Understanding attachment theory also enables me to understand how the life history of a young person has played an important role in how they behave now” (Residential Social Care Worker 2020).
Thus far consideration has been given to the naturalist views of development. From here, the discussion will move more to the nurture side of the debate.
Social Learning Theory
TASK 5
Watch Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment here: Bobo Doll
Bandura’s Theory of Social Learning suggests that people learn through observing how people behave in the world around them. More specifically, individuals that are observed are called models. In society, people are surrounded by many influential models, such family, friends, the media etc. These models provide examples of behaviour to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc. Children pay attention to models which enables them to encode their behaviour so that they can imitate the behaviour they have observed. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura et al. 1961).
Social Learning Theory also infers that observational learning only occurs because cognitive processes are at work. These mental factors intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. Thus, individuals do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and automatically imitate it. This is because thoughts occur prior to imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes. This process occurs in between when the individual observes the behaviour (stimulus) and when they imitate it or not (response). There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura as outlined below.
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Attention: The extent to which an individual is exposed to a behaviour. For a behaviour to be imitated, it has to grab their attention. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behaviour influences others imitating it |
Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be noticed but is it not always remembered which prevents imitation. |
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Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated. People are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if they wish to reproduce the behaviour, they cannot. |
Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishment that follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs, then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. |
Key Message
The direct and indirect environment around the individual shapes their development
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
Continuing with the focus on how the environment can shape a person’s development, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory depicts five ecosystems. Bronfenbrenner believed that a person’s development was affected by everything in their surrounding environment. He divided the person’s environment into five different levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner 1979).
TASK 6
Using the case studies below, apply Bronfenbrenner’s Theory to John, Mary and Florence’s lives in order to examine their ecosystems and how they affect their development
Case Study 1
John is 15, he has Autism Spectrum Disorder and lives in Residential Care. He has two younger brothers who are in Foster Care. John’s mother is in prison and John’s father is deceased. John sees his brothers every second weekend. John is on a reduced timetable at school and is engaging with the School Completion Programme, as he is at risk of leaving school early. The Residential Unit is based in a small rural village which is close to John’s school, so he walks to school with friends.
Case Study 2
Mary is 37. Mary is in active addiction and is homeless. Mary has two children who are in Foster Care. Mary does not currently see her children. Mary has a partner who is also in active addiction.
Case Study 3
Florence is a 28 year old Refugee with two young children. Florence is living in direct provision and is working with a keyworker in order to reach her goal of finding employment and a home of her own.
Key Message
Development continues over the life span and this occurs over a series of stages
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development suggests that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the individual will experience a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1959), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic qualities. Basic qualities are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. This theory is further illustrated below.
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Age and Stage |
Crisis |
Explanation |
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Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old |
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope |
The major emphasis is on the caregivers nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if well cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity and general mistrust to the world. |
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Toddler/ Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years |
Autonomy vs. Shame – Will |
At this point, the child has an opportunity to build autonomy as they learn new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying themselves with pride rather than shame. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills. |
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Pre- schooler: 3 to 5 Years |
Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose |
During this stage the child will experience a desire to copy the adults around them and make up stories through imaginative play. This enables the child to play out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. The most significant relationship is with the basic family. |
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School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years |
Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence |
During this stage, the child is capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, they can experience serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. The most significant relationship is with the school and neighbourhood. |
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Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years |
Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity |
Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to discover and find their own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong. Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium). Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends. |
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Young adult: 18 to 35 |
Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love |
At this stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends. |
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Age and Stage |
Crisis |
Explanation |
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Middle- aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65 |
Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care |
Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control. For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are common fears during this stage. Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are those within the family, workplace, local communities. |
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Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death |
Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom |
Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity – that is, contentment and fulfilment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to society. Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives. |
(Erikson 1959)
TASK 7
Reflecting on Erikson and Bronfenbrenner’s theories, consider how the 8 stages from infancy to late adulthood relate to Bronfenbrenner’s ecosystems – can you link the ecosystems to each of the 8 stages?
Adverse Childhood Experiences
Key Message
Adverse Childhood Experiences have lasting effects and can be prevented
Studies are increasingly identifying the importance of early life experiences to people’s health throughout the life course. Individuals who have Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) during childhood or adolescence tend to have more physical and mental health problems as adults than those who do not have ACEs. ACEs that affect children directly include abuse and neglect. Indirectly, ACEs may occur through their living environments e.g., parental conflict, substance abuse, or mental illness.
More specifically, ACEs, are potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years). For example:
- experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect
- witnessing violence in the home or community
- having a family member attempt or die by suicide
Also included are aspects of the child’s environment that can undermine their sense of safety, stability, and bonding such as growing up in a household with:
- substance misuse
- mental health problems
- instability due to parental separation or household members being in jail or prison
ACEs are linked to chronic health problems, mental illness, and substance misuse in adulthood. ACEs can also negatively impact education and job opportunities. However, ACEs can be prevented (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention 2020).
There is a significant body of evidence available on the benefits of early intervention in the lives of children (Lacey and Minnis 2020). Early intervention in children’s lives when there are difficulties can prevent problems escalating, strengthen families’ capacity to nurture children, and encourage and enable families to solve their own problems. Early intervention and improved cooperation, means that apparent difficult issues can be dealt with quickly and effectively, getting a full picture of a child’s circumstances and getting appropriate people involved early. The role of prevention is not only to combat risk factors but also to enhance and promote the positives in a child’s life as well as opportunities for child development. Changing the balance between risk and protective factors so that protective factors outweigh risk factors is an effective prevention and early intervention strategy (Tusla 2020).
TASK 8
Examine the findings from CDC-Kaiser Permanente Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. This is one of the largest investigations of childhood abuse and neglect and household challenges and later-life health andwell-being: ACE Case Study
Conclusion
This chapter has explored the key theories of individual and social development across the lifespan and contexts and within different cultures. The information and tasks provided have been developed in order for you to enhance your knowledge and understanding of these key theories in order to underpin your practice. This chapter has been designed to addresses Domain 5 Standard of Proficiency 7 in order to support you demonstrate an understanding of the theories of individual and social development across the lifespan and contexts and within different cultures including the knowledge required to work with individuals, children, vulnerable adults, families and marginalised groups.
Tips for Practice Educators
This proficiency is best understood for many students in the context of observations on practice placement.
- Provide the student with opportunities to observe practice where your agency demonstrates theories of individual and social development in interactions/engagement with service users.
- Suggest that students use their reflective diary to record their understanding of the application of this proficiency in practice.
- Provide an opportunity where students can plan activities and tasks that demonstrates their understanding of the importance of social development,
- Help students to plan strategies that ensure service users have a opportunity to reach their potential.
- Explore with your student in supervision their understanding or experiences of ACE.
- Support the student in identifying possible programmes/activities from their academic studies, that may support a service user with ACE.
References
Babakr, Zana H., Mohamedamin, Pakstan, and Kakamad, Karwan. (2019),! Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory: Critical Review. In: Education Quarterly Reviews, Vol.2, No.3, 517-524.
Babakr, Z. H., Pakstan, M. and Karwan, K. (2019) Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory; a critical review, Education Quarterly Reviews, Volume 2: 3, pp. 517-524
Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-82.
Berk, L. E. (2006) Child Development. Bosten: Pearson Education, Inc.
Bernstein, D. A., Clarke-stewart, A., and Roy, E. J. (2008) Psychology. USA: Houghton Mifflin.
Bronfenbrenner, E. (1979) The ecology of human development, Harvard University Press – Cambridge, Mass.
Brown, R. and Ward, H. (2013) Decision-making within a child’s timeframe: An overview of current research evidence for family justice professionals concerning child development and the impact of maltreatment, Department of Education, London
Canter for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020) Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences, [online] available at: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/aces/fastfact.html (accessed May 20th 2020).
Comer, R., & Gould, E. (2011) Psychology Around Us. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Couchenour, D. and Chrisman, K. (2016) The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Early Childhood Education, SAGE Publications, Inc
Erikson, E. H. (1959) Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. New York: WW Norton & Company. Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998) The life cycle completed. New York: WW Norton & Company.
Gesell Institute. (2020) Gesell Theory, [online] available at: https://gesellinstitute.org/pages/ gesell-theory Accessed February 8th 2020
Gibbs, J. (2016) In Housing Children: South Auckland, The Housing Pathways Longitudinal Study, Research in Anthropology and Linguistics, Volume 6, pp. 1-80
Lacey, R. and Minnis, H. (2020) Practitioner Review: Twenty years of research with adverse childhood experience scores – Advantages, disadvantages and applications to practice, Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, Vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 116-130
Levitt, M. (2013) Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour, Life Sciences, Society and Policy Volume 9: 13, pp. 1-11.
Lerner, R. M. (ed) (2015) Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, New York: Wiley Piaget, J. (1972) The Psychology of Intelligence, Totowa, NJ: Littlefield.
Santrock, J. W. (2011) Life-span development (13th edition). New York: McGraw Hill Education.
Tusla. The Prevention, Partnership and Family Support Programme Collaborative leadership for better outcomes, [online] available at: https://www.tusla.ie/uploads/content/PPFS_Low_Prevention_Services_ Brochure.pdf Accessed December 20th 2020
